Use this page to connect joint structure to movement, muscle action, assessment and safe massage positioning.
Fibrous: joined primarily by fibrous connective tissue and generally permit little movement. Cartilaginous: joined by cartilage and permit little to limited movement. Synovial: contain a joint cavity and are the freely movable joints most often tested in kinesiology.
Articular cartilage covers opposing bone surfaces. The joint capsule encloses the joint. Its inner synovial membrane produces synovial fluid, which contributes to lubrication and cartilage nutrition. Ligaments reinforce and guide joints. Some joints also contain fibrocartilage structures such as menisci or labra.
| Type | Classic example | Movement idea |
|---|---|---|
| Ball-and-socket | Shoulder, hip | Multiaxial: flex/extend, abduct/adduct, rotate, circumduct |
| Hinge | Elbow; interphalangeal | Primarily flexion/extension |
| Pivot | Proximal radioulnar; atlantoaxial | Rotation around an axis |
| Condyloid/ellipsoid | Radiocarpal wrist; MCP | Biaxial movement |
| Saddle | First carpometacarpal joint | Biaxial plus thumb opposition mechanics |
| Plane/gliding | Intercarpal; some facet/articular joints | Gliding between relatively flat surfaces |
| Flexion / extension | Usually decrease / increase the angle between segments. |
| Abduction / adduction | Away from / toward the midline. |
| Internal / external rotation | Rotation toward / away from the midline reference. |
| Pronation / supination | Forearm rotation placing palm posterior/down vs anterior/up from anatomical reference. |
| Dorsiflexion / plantarflexion | Ankle movement toward shin vs pointing foot. |
| Inversion / eversion | Sole turns medially vs laterally. |
| Elevation / depression | Superior vs inferior movement. |
| Protraction / retraction | Anterior/away vs posterior/toward, commonly scapula or mandible. |
| Opposition | Thumb moves across palm toward fingertips; reposition reverses it. |
| Circumduction | Circular/conical sequence combining flexion, abduction, extension and adduction. |
The shoulder is not one joint. The glenohumeral joint provides large humeral ROM, while scapular movement at the functional scapulothoracic articulation and motion at the AC and SC joints contribute to full arm elevation. Rotator cuff muscles help stabilize the humeral head. Scapular upward rotation involves coordinated muscle action including trapezius and serratus anterior.
The hip is a stable ball-and-socket joint between the femoral head and acetabulum. The knee primarily flexes/extends but also permits rotation when flexed. The tibiofemoral and patellofemoral relationships matter when positioning and moving the leg. Do not force a painful or unstable knee through range.
The talocrural joint is strongly associated with dorsiflexion/plantarflexion. Inversion/eversion involve subtalar and other foot-joint contributions. The foot's many joints permit adaptation while arches distribute load.
Intervertebral discs form cartilaginous joints between vertebral bodies while facet/zygapophyseal joints are synovial. Regional facet orientation and anatomy influence available flexion, extension, lateral flexion and rotation. Cervical, thoracic and lumbar regions do not move identically.
AROM: client moves voluntarily. PROM: external force moves a relaxed client. Resisted movement: client contracts against resistance. End feel: quality of resistance near the end of passive range. Massage therapists use findings within scope and do not convert a ROM observation into a medical diagnosis.